Human Resource Management How Groups Behave Differently From Individ

Human Resource Management : How Groups Behave Differently From Individuals ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR AND ANALYSIS COURSE ASSIGNMENT QUESTION 2 IN WHAT WAYS DO GROUPS BEHAVE DIFFERENTLY FROM INDIVIDUALS? This essay will attempt to answer the above question by not only studying the conduct of individuals and groups in a work context, but also by looking at the causes of behaviour. Organisational behaviour theories, experiments and case studies will be used to investigate the behaviour of first the individual and then the group in a work environment. The term group for the purposes of this assignment as been defined as a formal group which has been established by an organisation at a point in time in with the purpose of achieving a specified goal. Although it is noted that many friendship and informal groupings do develop. When both the behaviour of the individual and the group have been assessed, a discussion will be made as to how these behavioural patterns differ, why they differ and to what extent they differ. Individual Behaviour There are many theories of human behaviour used for the purposes of management and these are constantly being updated. Traditional management thinking focuses on the idea that in order to understand how a person will act in a given set of circumstances, individuals motives have to be assessed. A more modern approach looks at the individuals: abilities, personality, personality traits, ethics and culture. Traditional View In earlier models it was first assumed that people were basically the same, that they had the same wants and needs. Leavitt [1] suggested that there are certain generalisations, which are useful in predicting human behaviour. In order to illustrate these generalisations he asked this question, What are the fundamental, unexceptionally truths of human behaviour? Some of the answers he found included: People are products of their environment. People want security. All people want is bread and butter. People are fundamentally lazy. People are fundamentally selfish. People want the chance to show what they can do. Although many of the answers that were received were contradictory, Leavitt believed that at another level the contradiction disappears and that there are three basic assumptions that can be made about human behaviour. Firstly that human behaviour is caused by outside influences this is termed as causality. Secondly is the idea of directness, which assumes that a person's behav iour when caused is directed towards something, i.e., it is goal orientated. Thirdly is the belief that underlying behaviour there is always a motivation, a need or a want. By using these assumptions a model can be developed for understanding an individual's conduct. It was thought that if motive influences a behaviour, which allows an individual to arrive at a goal, when the goal is reached the motive no longer exists and so a new motive is created. This has been illustrated in the diagram below. Basic Model of Behaviour Stimulus Need Goal Want Tension Discomfort behaviour Individual Source Leavitt [1] This idea is related to Maslow's hierarchy theory [2] were there are two basic premises. Firstly that people have needs such as: security, social interaction and self esteem, secondly that these needs are arranged in a hierarchical form. A person will attempt to attain each need in order from the bottom (the most immediate) need to the top need. Maslow's ideas were generally accepted in business, however they were solely based on observations and never actually proved by empirical, statistical or experimental data. Mangers thought the model to be true because it sounded logical. The Hierarchy Theory has since been updated and improved most notably by Murry H A who suggested that needs are not necessarily arranged in a hierarchical form, his model is more flexible in describing people. Contemporary View Another way of studying behaviour is through individual differences, Steers [3] believes that these differences are the main components that will affect the way a person behaves. If we consider this from work perspective the main elements of behaviour are an individual's distinct: abilities, personality, values and ethics and culture. A worker's ability, refers to their capacity and desire to respond to any given situation or problem. Capacity to respond include elements such as mental and physical skill, perception capability and stress tolerance, while desire to respond refers to motivation. It could be argued that the characteristic of ability refers

Kingship Essays

Kingship Essays Kingship Essay Kingship Essay Essay Topic: Literature To be a good king, God must pick you. In Elizabethan times, everyone believed that to be a king, you had to be blessed by the Right of Kings which comes from God. The Elizabethans followed many orders, this being one of them. The murder of a king is far worse than any other kind of crime as you destroy Gods order ad also the structure of society. Confusion now hath made his master piece. Most sacrilegious murder hath broken ope The Lords anointed temple. The kings were measured on how great they were, this makes it possible for us to compare Duncan, Macbeth and Malcolm. This is the test, which Malcolm provides in Act 4 Scene 3. This play was written for King James 1 in memory of King Edward. King Edward has powers unlimited and could cure these qualities were supposed to be inherited by the next kings to come. I believe that Malcolm had these skills (as portrayed in Act 4 Scene 3). He also was witty and sharp to think of a test for Macduff. Duncan was a righteous king he was picked by God, and whoever he picked next would be righteous too. This was Malcolm, not Macbeth. The public would have agreed with Malcolm taking the throne and not Macbeth as God had picked Duncan, and then he picked Malcolm. Another good point about Duncan and then Malcolm to become king was that everyone like them as they were worthy of becoming kings. Malcolm was worthy, until after Duncans death, he fled. This turned the public against him, but it was Macbeths fault. In that way, Duncan and Malcolm were very much alike; but they were also different from one another in other ways. Duncan was a bad decision maker, as at the start of the play, we realise that Duncan has been tricked and deceived by the Thane of Cawdor, No more that Thane of Cawdor shall deceive Our bosom interest. Go pronounce his present death, And with former title greet Macbeth. This shows that Duncan was a bit gullible, and also too loyal and trusting. He made a bad decision in making Macbeth Thane of Cawdor, as the power went to his head and he became greedy and selfish. This is the main way that Malcolm and his father were different. Malcolm was much wiser than his father and used tests; like in Act 4 Scene 3 with Macduff to test peoples loyalty and to see if they were genuine or not. This worked greatly in his and his countrys favour. King Edward is mentioned in the play in Act 4 Scene 3, but we dont actually get to see him. He represents all the good things that the king is supposed to have e.g. his powers to cure, Justice, verity, temprance, stableness etc. These are the qualities that Malcolm had they symbolised that he was gong to make a great and glorious king one day, just like Edward who sets a wonderful example for Malcolm. In comparison to Macbeth, we clearly see that Malcolm is meant to be a king, and not Macbeth. Macbeth created the worse crime possible he killed the king. This shows that he has committed crimes against God and the society in his day. As God picks the future kings (as he did with Duncan and Malcolm through Duncan), as a king, you must give thanks to God, but Macbeth didnt. Malcolm would make a good king, as he possessed the qualities of thankfulness and graciousness that every king needed. Malcolm would make a fantastic king, as he had the right to the throne, given by God, and he worshipped God, for that reason. He also was a pure man and had never told a lie, (Act 4 Scene 3), The taints and blames I laid upon myself, For strangers to my nature. I am yet Unknown to woman, never was forsworn. He also has many good qualities that a normal man would not have; But I have none. The king becoming graces, As justice, verity, temprance, stableness, Bounty, perseverance, mercy, lowliness, Devotion, patience, courage, fortitude, As these are the king becoming graces, every king must possess them. Duncan possessed them and now Malcolm possesses them. All these qualities show that Malcolm has the great potential to be king and is on the peoples side being picked by God. He was like his father, who was a brilliant king and who everyone adored, only better. Therefore, in conclusion, according to all the evidence that I have presented, I think that Malcolm would make a great monarch. He has all the skills and necessary qualities to be a good ruler. Comparing him to the two past kings. He is better than both of them and would lead Scotland to victory after what Macbeth had done to it.

The Role of Afro-Cubans in the 1898 War of Independence Essay

The Role of Afro-Cubans in the 1898 War of Independence - Essay Example Cubans used discrimination and the fable of cultural impartiality to repress the Afro-Cubans. In 1868, Liberation for Africans imprisoned in Cuba was a multifaceted procedure that had started on a striking level with the initiation of "The War of Independence" in opposition to its colonist, Spain. Oriente, Cuba, was the focal part of the Independence progress. The War of Independent initiated in October2. The basic, well-liked seize on this occasion sets off like a white landlord and slave proprietor, Carlos Manuel de Cespedes presented a speech identified as the "Grito de Yara", unchained his slaves and integrated them into his unsystematic armed forces as he confirmed battle against the Spanish kingdom. This is a trick that appears to be an attempt to cover Cespedes as a kind and caring white that acquired action as the consequence of being familiar with his natural racial discrimination and having a change of heart in the direction of slavery. Cespedes was born into a famous farm family that had be established their lands in 1517. As Carlos Manuel de Cespedes is well-known as a central character of the War of Independence, his contribution was merely after eastern Cuba's monetary endurance in jeopardy. Additionally to his prominent speech, he right away affirmed anybody inducing slaves to fight back would be punished to death. In Cuba, as there are quite a few Latin American states, white influential dishonesty was founded on fallaciously sustaining the fable of ethnic fairness in the country to seize on to defend the present social constitution of white supremacy. At the same time, the farmer's curiosity in the revolution in opposition to Spain was economic and motivated by selfishness and greediness. The Afro-Cubans were progressively more caught up in a severe attempt on the way to liberty and independence. The white farmers occupied in the revolution postponed sooner than they declared the elimination of slavery in th e rebellious region1. These same influential were unwilling to take in previous slave and free Afro-Cubans into the revolution. However, there was conflict from western and central Cuban farmers due to the elimination and imprisoning the revolution to eastern Cuba.3 The War of Independence ended with the notice of the Pact of Zanjon in 1878. Though, a lot of the Afro-Cuban activists discarded the deal on the floors as it did not achieve the objectives of the revolt which was to finish slavery and attaining sovereignty from Spain. Apart of the disappointment for the revolt was due to the deficiency of thriving union, but it must be cited that the willingness of the United States to trade the most up-to-date armaments to Spain but not to the Cuban revolutionaries did have an impact. One more cause was that some of the revolutionaries, who discarded the agreement, did on the basis of that it was a fake pledge that would not be kept back and time did demonstrated this measurement to be

Issues in Australian Health Services Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Issues in Australian Health Services - Essay Example Australia has many problems in the healthcare system of today, very much like many other countries in the world . In an effort to determine what the top issues for this system are, a survey was done. This survey was posted on Google Master and healthcare workers were informed that it was available. The goal was five responses and twelve actually responded all professionals and all but two were RNs. This paper will take the results of this survey and compare the top three issues to the research. (Note full results of survey in Appendix A). The top three issues as noted in the survey of professionals in the system were, in this order, the increasing aging population including the aging of the healthcare workforce itself, lack of adequate funding to meet the needs of the community or to incentivize nurses to join or remain in the system, and access to health care for rural Australians. All of these three issues, though they appear to be different are tied to two issues. The first is the nursing shortage and the second is the political atmosphere related to healthcare at this time. Research supports the surveyed nurses and their concerns about healthcare in Australia. The biggest challenge at this time is the increased need for care causing a high demand when there are both financial and manpower shortages in the healthcare industry (Gray, Mell & Meinsch, 2009). There is a major shortage of carrers for an increasing number of paitents entering the system. According to Australian Nursing Federation (ANF, 2006). workers in aged care are less often supervised than they need to be based on the fact that there no one to supervise. The Aged Care Assessment Team is becoming overwhelmed and the effect of that is shift to stigmatizing, targeting, and selecting of available care for those that most often need it (Gray, 2009). The second group that deals with this issue is the HACC (home and community care) which is a

Criminal Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 5

Criminal Law - Essay Example For instance, false imprisonment may occur when an armed gang takes control of a bank or any other institution and orders everyone in the building to a certain room and locks them up without their will or consent. Kidnapping is a crime where a person transported from one place to another without his or her will, or confining a person to an isolated place by the use of force. The difference between false imprisonment and kidnapping is that in false imprisonment is the use of force and threat is practiced, though force and threat are elements of kidnapping it is far from kidnapping (Senjo, 2011). Kidnapping is a situation where an individual is restraint by circumstances that he or she will be exposed to serious body harm if the victim does not give in to the demands of the perpetrator. In false imprisonment, the victims are not transported to another location while in kidnapping the victim is transported. False arrest is a situation where a law enforcement officer without his or her legal consent detains a person. but in a case where a law enforcement officer makes an arrest to probable cause and shows that his or her action were supported by a probable cause then the law enforcement officer will bear no

Factors Affecting Empathy: Theories Analysis

Factors Affecting Empathy: Theories Analysis Empathy can be described as â€Å"taking the role of the other and seeing the other from his or her internal frame of reference† (Eagle Wolitzky, 2004, p. 217). In recent years, it has been one of the most popular topics in the field of psychology. Empathy is considered to be one of the most important skills in communication, connection and trusting others. To gain better understanding new studies concerning neuroscientific, developmental and social side of empathy were conducted. Empirical evidence showed that empathy is rather a multidimensional construct and can be divided into two concepts: cognitive empathy and affective (emotional) empathy. Cognitive empathy can be subdivided into perspective taking and fantasy as well as affective empathy can be subdivided into empathic concern and personal distress (Davis, 1983). However, as empathy is a quite complex process it has not been fully agreed whether cognitive and affective systems exist at all and if they do whether they interact or work as two separate systems. Despite all the contradictory and confusion concerning empathy it would be impossible to understand what regions of brain are active in the process of empathy, what is the mirror neurons purpose in this, how parenting and personal characteristics affect the development of empathy and how loneliness or personal distress influence empathy if the discipline of psychology didn’t pay so much attention to this crucial process. As it was mentioned before, in the development of empathy parenting and attachment style can be crucial factors which determine how empathic a child will be in later life. Taylor et al. (Taylor, Eisenberg, Spinrad, Eggum, Sulik, 2013) conducted a study to examine how ego-resiliency, parental support of emotional expression and sensitivity to children needs affect development of empathy in children aged 18-84 months. Moreover, it was expected that increased empathy would have an impact on prosocial behaviour in later childhood. Sample of 242 children were used and it was found that encouragement to express emotions as well as ego-resiliency at 18 months predicts increased empathy at 24 months. Furthermore, researchers found that growth in empathy also increased prosocial behaviour at the 72/84 months. Nevertheless, it is important to mention that only reports were used in the study which makes it less accurate. Also, it is possible that genes have an impact on development of empathy and mother might transfer it to a child. That could explain why mothers who are more empathic, more sensitive and encourages expressing emotions have children who score higher results in empathy tests. Another study partly supporting the previous one was conducted in Netherlands and consisted only of 16-22 months old girls. Researchers examined parental sensitivity, attachment style and its’ impact on empathic concern both at home and in the laboratory (Mark, IJzendoorn, Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2002). Van der Mark et al. (2002) found that empathy towards a mother increased from 16 to 22 months, however, empathic concern towards strangers decreased. Fearfully and insecurely attached girls found to be less empathic later on. Furthermore, this research found that sensitive parenting has no effect upon empathy. It contradicts the study mentioned above as well as a few other investigations which found that parenting is an important part of the development of empathy (Robinson et al ., 1994). The confusion might have appeared because of a sensitive development of empathy in this age group. It is important to remember that the study involved only girls and used quite narrow age group which prevents this research to be applied for a wider population. Taylor et al. (2013) in the previous study found that initially boys are less empathic; however, it increases with time and stabilizes in toddlerhood. Inconsistent finding and specific research sometimes can confuse and rise more questions rather than give answers. For this reason it is possible to find more articles supporting or disproving hypotheses. For instance, another study consisting 678 adolescents and their both parents were conducted in Belgium. Even though this research took a step further and examined older participants, it also took another perspective and looked at how perceived both parents need supportive parenting impacted emotional and cognitive empathy systems (Soenens, Miklikowska, Duriez, 2011) . Soenens et al. (2011) found that father’s need support with time affected perspective taking or in other words cognitive empathy in both, boys and girls. On the other hand, it was found that only girls’ empathic concern (emotional empathy) were affected by mother’s need support. The research shows that supportive parenting is important for development of empathy. Furthermore, Soenens et al. (2011) emphasizes the importance to divide empathy into emotional and cognitive in order to understand better the origins of empathy. Yet, this study didn’t include how parents perceived their own parenting style or what people, who know the adolescents, think about their emphatic skills. After all, evidence suggests that sensitive, need supportive parenting, secure attachment and individual characteristics are of great importance to the development of empathy. Even though some finding are inconsistent and contradict the other ones it was proved more than once that p arenting has a huge impact on both, cognitive and emotional empathy. However, it is useful to consider neuroscientific part of empathy and how genes or brain injuries can affect development as well as different systems working in the process of empathy. The field of developmental psychology helped us to understand how important maternal and paternal authority can be but it is not the only area of psychology which improved our understanding of empathy. Another field, which must be introduced when it is talked about empathy, is neuropsychology. Different areas of brain, mirror neuron system are known to be activated in the process of empathy and have been studied by neuroscientists for quite a long time. Now we can tell why autistic people or those who are diagnosed with schizophrenia have difficulty understanding how another person feels. One study tried to examine what regions of brain are activated in self-orientation and orientation to others and how direct gaze affects empathy (Schulte-Rà ¼ther, Markowitsch, Fink, Piefke, 2007). It was hypothesized that in the task of assigning emotions to yourself and to others Theory of Mind (ToM) mechanism would be activated as well as human Mirror Neuron System (hMNS), however they expected that different parts would be activated on different occasions (attributing emotions to yourself and attributing emotions to another person). Schulte-Rà ¼ther et al. (2007) also assumed that direct ga ze into a person would trigger empathy. 26 subjects looked at pictures with other people either looking directly to them or looking away and had to tell what they think a person is feeling and what they think they are feeling. Schulte-Rà ¼ther et al. (2007) using fMRI found that telling what you feel and what another feels activate brain regions related to emotional processing, hMNS and ToM mechanisms. Furthermore, researchers found that in both tasks Broca’s area is activated which is extremely close to mirror neurons. However, human brain is very complex organ and several different areas can be responsible for the same function, so it is still unclear which areas are responsible for cognitive and which for affective empathy as well as how they communicate to each other. On the other hand, it is not the only research which tries to uncover neurological side of empathy. For instance, Shamay-Tsoory et al. (Shamay-Tsoory, Aharon-Peretz, Perry, 2009) carried out a research to determine whether emotional and cognitive empathy are two independent systems controlled by different neurological bases. 64 subjects with brain damage in two different brain regions participated in the study. Researchers found that inferior frontal gyrus cortice is responsible for emotional empathy and ventromedial prefrontal cortice, for cognitive empathy. Study results support the research mentioned before on the importance of Broca’s area and. It was found that this area is most significant in emotional empathy and it also is essential element of hMNS. Shamay-Tsoory et al. (2009) also found Brodman area 10 (anterior prefrontal cortex) and 11(orbitofrontal area) to be the most crucial in cognitive empathy. Thus, emotional and cognitive empathy are two distinct systems controlled by different brain regions. Nevertheless, it is not clear if those two systems overlap in our brain. Both studies hold strong evidence of mirror neuron system’s impact on emotional empathy. However, we cannot forget that there are neural networks and temporal poles involved into the process of empathy. Financial Ratio Calculations | Profitability Calculations Financial Ratio Calculations | Profitability Calculations Financial ratios are useful indicators of a firms performance and financial situation. Most ratios can be calculated from information provided by the financial statements. Financial ratios can be used to analyse trends and to compare the firms financials to those of other firms. Sometimes, ratio analysis can predict future bankruptcy of a business. As we can see the performance of Systems Integrated PLC is related to the areas of profitability, efficiency and liquidity. First of all, the profitability of a company is clearly shown through the Return on Capital Employed ratio (R.O.C.E) and the gross profit percentage, the second one is reduced from 2009 to 2010 but about the first we can say that is getting higher. Moreover, we have the gross profit margin ratio and we can see that year by year is getting lower and this is not good for our business .Profitability depends on the obsolescence/damage/theft, or even the under/overvaluation of stock. Also, it depends on the general fall or increase in selling price. Utility companies tend to have low R.O.C.E ratios because of the high investments in fixed assets. For example, a high R.O.C.E may be due to the fact that some firms are using old-aged assets which are almost fully depreciated. Liquidity 4) Acid Test = (Current Assets Inventors) / Current Liabilities = (1822 935) / 1313 = 0.67:1 5) Inventory Holding Period = (Average Inventory / Cost of Sales) * 365 = [(850 + 935) / 2] / 7540 = 43 days 6) Customer Collection Period = (Debtors / Sales) * 365 = (842 / 11178) * 365 = 27 days 7) Current Ratio = Current Assets / Current Liabilities = 1822 / 1313 = 1.4:1 8) Suppliers Payment Period = (Suppliers / Purchases) * 365 = (1313 / 7625) * 365 = 63 days 9) Interest Cover = EBIT / Interest Expense = 1366 / 105 = 13 times Secondly, liquidity is mostly shown by the current ratio and the acid test ratio. A current ratio of 2.5:1 is considered to be adequate. In addition to this, a high current ratio indicates that the firm is tying up its resources in unproductive assets. Also, indicates slow moving stock and slow paying customers. The sufficiency of a current ratio depends on the composition of the current assets and how soon the short/long term obligations have to be settled. Also an acid test ratio of 1.1:1 is considered to be sufficient, too. The numerator of a liquidity ratio is part or all of current assets. Possibly the most common liquidity ratio is the current ratio . The problem with the current ratio as a liquidity ratio is that inventories, a current asset, may not be converted to cash for several months, while many current liabilities must be paid within 90 days. Thus a more conservative liquidity ratio is the acid test ratio. Efficiency 10) Fixed Assets usage = Net Sales / Fixed Assets = 11178 / 2832 = 3.9 times 11) Total Assets usage = Net Sales / Total Assets = 11178 / 4653.5 = 2.4 times Lastly, efficiency is another important fact in a company. It is combined in three periods: the customers collection period, the suppliers payment period and the inventory holding period. We can see that at the fixed assets usage ratio of System Integrated plc has increased from the 2.9 of the industry to 3.9 times. In the second ratio, the total asset usage, System Integrated plc has almost the same percentage with the industry and this is good news for our company because is a very good percentage. The fact that some firms holding period is obsolete and that they have a slow moving stock is completely because of the high inventory holding specific period. Although, these firms aim at reducing this ratio so they could be more efficient and productive. Accounting is the language of business and its numbers are pertinent convey financial information. A lot of people are confused with the accounting numbers. The importance is high to know and to learn how to find meaning in those numbers because it helps you to understand where your business is going. Measuring accounting numbers and business transactions need a context to be significant. A list of numbers doesnt mean much without knowing what you are looking at. You can find meaning about the accounting numbers by looking at the description labels, such as customers names, account names or vendor names. Moreover accounting numbers are usually used for analysis and to answer questions. For example if you want to know how much rent expenses you have left in your budget, you need to look at accounting numbers. They can provide you prà ©cis information about how much rent you have spent and how much you have left cover. Accounting quantifies operations and gives people the aptitude to see a situation from a different viewpoint. You can make important decisions if you look your sales numbers for the year and when you mix that with expenses, you can gain many issues, such as if the expenses are too high for sales or if payroll its usually low. Furthermore, accounting numbers help us in many ways. For instance by looking at accounting numbers you can easily recognise old accounts receivable that you have to collect and also with the accounts you know who owes you and for how long. These numbers and accounts are helpful and valuable to any organization or a business. On the other hand, accounting number have their weaknesses too. We consider many reasons and factors for weaknesses in numbers in financial statements. Some factors are: the creative accounting, the off balance sheet financing, bias, the managerial pressures and objectivity. Creative accounting it is a firm of misrepresenting the performance and position of a business. This means that accountants apply particular accounting methods to a transaction to make statements look the way they want them to look. Companies are free to choose which policies to apply, so there is a space in regulations to perform creative accounting. One of the most important things is that some planned attempts to materially misstate accounting figures are illegal. The most common examples include tax evasion schemes. Besides that, some Off-balance sheet financing issues occur when the accountant does not put everything on the balance sheet. Usually Off-balance sheet financing aims in making the business to seem more valuable by inflating the value of assets and does not include some liabilities. Additionally we have Bias who is causing the nepotism of the preferences or partial. Bias influences with an unfair way users of accounting information. Bias is also broken up in categories of Disclosure bias, Estimation bias, Attributional bias, Judgement bias. Inventors are usually influenced by disclosure bias and estimation bias lead auditors to verify false information. Bias does not affect only numerically but it also affects narrative reporting which represents the image and icon of a business management. Judgement bias affects the financial reporting subliminally, inaccuracies might also occur from unconscious bias. Accounting decisions require professional judgement. Ambiguity builds upon concept of representation and occurs of the representation of accrual accounting and cash flow. The problem that is made by ambiguity is that ambiguity surrounds accounting numbers and so numbers does not actually exist but are estimated. If you are looking to make your own financial ratio calculations then take a look at our Financial Ratio Calculator Environment Essay: Climate Change Disease Environment Essay: Climate Change Disease The Effects of Global Warming and Climate Change on Infectious Disease Patterns Climate Change The earth’s atmosphere was first equated to that of a greenhouse in 1827 by Jean Baptiste Fourier (Khasnis Nettleman, 2005). The ‘greenhouse effect’ describes the natural ability of the earth’s atmosphere and associated gases to retain heat radiated from the sun (Khasnis Nettleman, 2005). Upon arrival in the earth’s atmosphere, the sun’s radiation is absorbed providing a warming effect to the earth’s climate (Khasnis Nettleman, 2005). A large portion of the absorbed radiation is reemitted back into the earth’s atmosphere for release (Khasnis Nettleman, 2005). Earth’s ‘greenhouse gases’, namely methane, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, hydrofluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and perfluorocarbons serve as a barrier to the release of much of the reemitted radiation from the earth’s surface (Khasnis Nettleman, 2005). Although the ‘greenhouse effect’ and the associated ‘greenhouse gase s’ allow for the sustainability of life on earth, an overabundance of these gases has caused the emergence of global warming (Khasnis Nettleman, 2005). Since the turn of the twentieth century, global temperatures have increased by 0.6 °C as depicted in Figure I (NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 2002). Future Figure I. Increases in the average global temperature from 1880 to 2002. Source: NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies predictions surrounding global temperature increases during the next century allude to a 2 °C to 6 °C increase (Climate Action Network Canada, n.d.). Because of its northern geography, the effects of global warming in Canada are expected to be more severe than other parts of the world with temperature increases forecasted between 6 °C and 10 °C (Climate Action Network Canada, n.d.). In northern Canada, birds foreign to the region, such as robins, are becoming more prevalent (Climate Action Network Canada, n.d.). Polar bears and other artic creatures are losing their habits to global warming due to the excessive melting of ice (Climate Action Network Canada, n.d.). As a result of the warming of the earth’s atmosphere, other climatic events have become more prevalent, hence the concept of climate change (Nugent, 2004). Specifically, extreme weather events and precipitation levels have risen and are expected to continue in an upward trend (Nugent, 2004). In the past decade, extreme weather events in Canada have drastically increased from less than 20 at the turn of the twentieth century to nearly 140 in 1999 (refer to Figure II) (Environment Canada, 2005). To compound on the increased prevalence of extreme weather events, by 2070, precipitation levels in Canada are expected to rise between 5 Figure II. Increases in extreme weather events over the past century as a result of global warming. Source: Environmental Canada and 25 percent as illustrated in Figure III (Natural Resources Canada, 2007). As a result of global warming and the subsequent increases in extreme weather events and precipitation levels, Figure IIII. Future predictions reveal substantial increases in precipitation amounts in Canada. Source: Natural Resources Canada alterations in infectious disease patterns are also anticipated (Landrigan Garg, 2002). Because the scope and consequences of global warming are complex and expand far beyond the increases in global temperatures, extreme weather events, and precipitation amounts, the remainder of this paper will focus on the interaction between climate change and infectious disease patterns in North America, especially Canada. Infectious Diseases To fully understand the connection between climate change and infectious disease patterns, a basic understanding of infectious diseases is needed. By definition, â€Å"infectious diseases are caused by invading organisms called pathogens [†¦such as†¦] bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi, and molds† (Merrill Timmreck, 2006). For a pathogen to produce disease, it requires the presence of three elements: host, environment, and time (Merrill Timmreck, 2006). This relationship is beautifully depicted in the epidemiologic triangle as seen in Figure IV (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.). Because the interaction between pathogens Time Figure IV. The epidemiologic triangle illustrates the connectedness and dependency of the host (disease-causing pathogen) on its environment and host. Source: Center for Disease Control and Prevention and the environment is integral to the development, sustainability, and virulence of infectious diseases, climatic changes caused by global warming will alter the disease patterns of infectious pathogens (WHO, 2003). Specifically, increases in atmospheric temperatures, precipitation, humidity, and extreme weather events due to global warming will significantly change the environments in which infectious disease pathogens survive therefore altering their disease patterns (WHO, 2003). Infectious diseases can be grouped into four main categories based on their preferred environment and mode of transmission (Merrill Timmreck, 2006). Waterborne, foodborne, vector-borne, and rodent-borne infectious diseases are all caused by pathogens with varying environmental preferences (Merrill Timmreck, 2006). The prevalence and distribution of each of the four categories of infectious diseases has currently changed or is predicted to change as a result of global warming and climate change (Nugent, 2004). The next section of this paper will briefly discuss waterborne, foodborne, vector-borne, and rodent-borne infectious diseases respectively in relation to geographic spread, severity, and incidence rates. Waterborne Diseases Waterborne diseases are transmitted by pathogens that thrive in wet environments (Nugent, 2004). These pathogens are extremely sensitive to climate changes, namely water and temperature variations (Nugent, 2004). The climatic changes caused by global warming, specifically increases in precipitation and global temperatures will provide an ideal environment for waterborne disease pathogens to thrive (Khasnis Nettleman, 2005). Therefore, the prevalence of waterborne diseases is predicted to rise due to the increase in the associated disease-causing pathogens and excessive levels of precipitation (Nugent, 2004). Among the effects of global warming, larger quantities of precipitation will increase the chance of contamination in surface runoff water and groundwater (Nugent, 2004). Because of deforestation and the subsequent urbanization of many regions in North America, the amount of surface runoff water has increased (Landrigan Garg, 2002). Traveling long distances over urbanized surfaces, such as concrete, asphalt, and tar, increases the likelihood of water contamination from chemicals present at the surface (Landrigan Garg, 2002). Groundwater contamination is primarily a result of pesticide and herbicide use and the increased seepage into the soil due to excessive precipitation (Landrigan Garg, 2002). Substantial amounts of contaminated surface runoff water and groundwater may cause water treatment facilities to overflow, allowing a source of tainted water to enter into a region’s drinking and recreational water supplies (Nugent, 2004). Recent Canadian outbreaks of waterborne dise ases include â€Å"[†¦] E.coli in Walkerton, Ontario; Cryptosporidium in Collingwood, Ontario; and Toxoplasma in the greater Victoria area, British Columbia† (Natural Resources of Canada, 2007). The causes of these outbreaks can be traced back to surface water and groundwater contamination (Natural Resources of Canada, 2007). To quantify the risk posed by contaminated surface water and groundwater, the American Journal of Public Health published an alarming report, stating that â€Å"of the 548 waterborne disease outbreaks reported between 1948 and 1994 [in the United States], 133 were known to be from surface water contamination, 197 were known to be form groundwater contamination, and 218 had an unknown water contamination source† (Curriero, Patz, Rose, Lele, 2001). As precipitation levels continue to escalate as a result of global warming, the prevalence of waterborne diseases and their associated pathogens will subsequently rise. Foodborne Diseases Foodborne diseases can originate from two possible sources: (1) the exposure of food products to contaminated water and (2) the growth of disease-causing pathogens within various food products (Nugent, 2004). Increased amounts of tainted water combined with warmer temperatures provide an ideal breeding ground for algae (Landrigan Garg, 2002). Oceans and lakes contaminated with algae pose a threat to the surrounding aquatic wildlife and the creatures in the upper hierarchy of the food chain. Among other marine wildlife, fish and mussels are most at-risk for algae contamination (Nugent, 2004). Human consumption of algal contaminated fish and mussels can result in waterborne disease transmission (Nugent, 2004). Such an incident occurred 21 years ago in Prince Edward Island when â€Å"[†¦] 107 people were hospitalized and four died as a result of eating contaminated mussels† (Nugent, 2004). Other foods, such as fresh fruits and vegetables are also prone to contamination from tainted water used for cleaning and irrigation purposes (Nugent, 2004). An example occurred â€Å"in 1997, [when†¦] 150 Michigan students and teachers contracted the foodborne disease Hepatitis A after eating imported strawberries† (Nugent, 2004). In addition to water contamination, foodborne diseases can originate from the development of disease-causing pathogens within the food itself (Nugent, 2004). Warmer temperatures caused by global warming may entice people to remain outdoors for greater periods, potentially putting themselves at-risk of consuming food that has been left without refrigeration (Nugent, 2004). Vector-Borne Diseases Disease-causing pathogens transmitted from insects to humans are referred to as vector-borne diseases (Merrill Timmreck, 2006). Vector-borne disease patterns will feel the effects of global warming more than any other type of infectious disease since â€Å"the most common vectors, arthropods, are cold-blooded, meaning that their internal temperature is greatly affected by the temperature of their environment† (Khasnis Nettleman, 2005). Climatic consequences of global warming will directly impact the vectors’ breeding and growth rates as well as the length of biting season and exposure to humans (Natural Resources Canada, 2007). Furthermore, increases in global temperatures and precipitation will stimulate the production, growth and transmission of the pathogens that vectors transmit (WHO, 2003). Therefore, vectors and the pathogens they carry are predicted to increase in prevalence in climates that have experienced or are predicted to experience an increase in average seasonal temperatures as a result of global warming (Natural Resources Canada, 2007). To further the effect of warmer temperatures on the production and growth rates of various vectors, floods and heavy rainfall produced by global warming can leave behind standing pools of water which make ideal habitats for breeding and growth (Landrigan Garg, 2002). The effects of global warming and climate change on vector-borne disease patterns have already become evident in Canada. Currently, the Canadian environment can sustain a variety of vector-borne diseases including West Nile virus, encephalitis, Lyme disease, and Rocky Mountain spotted fever (Natural Resources Canada, 2007). Between 2002 and 2006, Canada reported and identified approximately 2,300 human cases of West Nile Virus (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2007). Warmer Canadian winters allow mosquitoes that carry West Nile virus and encephalitis to survive through the winter months increasing their reproductive season and subsequent growth and biting rates (Natural Resources Canada, 2007). Lyme disease, carried by ticks is already present in much of the United States with sporadic occurrences in Canada (Natural Resources Canada, 2007). If the warming trends associated with global warming continue, the migration of ticks and their associated diseases to Canada will occur in the ne ar future (Natural Resources Canada, 2007). Vector-borne diseases not present in epidemic proportions in North America, such as malaria, the plague, and yellow fever have the potential for reemergence if current global warming patterns do not subside (Nugent, 2004). Rodent-Borne Diseases Rodent-borne diseases are transmitted to humans by rats, chipmunks, and squirrels (Nugent, 2004). The primary effect of global warming on disease-carrying rodents is a disruption or alteration to their food supply (Nugent, 2004). Food may become scare in regions experiencing droughts forcing rodents to relocate to other regions with a greater abundance of food (Nugent, 2004). In areas experiencing increased amounts of precipitation, such as Canada, the potential for survival, reproduction, and growth will increase for rodents inhabiting the region (Nugent, 2004). A shift in geographical location of disease-carrying rodents will disrupt the natural rodent-borne disease patterns associated with an area. In Canada, a shift in the geographical range of deer mice has caused the Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome to spread to regions in the Yukon, where its presence has never been experienced (Natural Resources Canada, 2007). Shift in Disease Prevalence Over the past century, the western culture has seen a tremendous shift in prevalence from infectious diseases to chronic diseases. At the turn of the nineteenth century, tuberculosis, pneumonia, and influenza attributed to nearly 30 percent of all deaths in the United States (Merrill Timmreck, 2006). Currently, cancer and heart disease cause almost 74 percent of all deaths in the United States (Merrill Timmreck, 2006). The effects of global warming on infectious diseases patterns could cause a reversal in disease prevalence, from chronic diseases back to infectious diseases (Longstreth Wiseman, 1989). Warmer temperatures and wetter climates create ideal breeding grounds for waterborne, foodborne, vector-borne, and rodent-borne disease pathogens (Nugent, 2004). Increasing the quantity of the disease-causing pathogens and the medium in which they survive could cause a reemergence of selected infected diseases, such as malaria, yellow fever, and the plague in regions experiencing dra matic temperature shifts (Longstreth Wiseman, 1989). Effects on the Canadian Health Care System Because global warming involves a complex array of environmental processes and consequences, its future trends and resulting climatic effects are difficult to predict (Khasnis Nettleman, 2005). The subsequent changes in infectious disease patterns caused by global warming will be just as difficult to predict as global warming itself (Khasnis Nettleman, 2005). Therefore, the efforts of health officials and environmental specialists to predict and prepare for the effects of global warming on the environment and on human health will be primarily based on predictions. To best predict and prepare for the future outcomes of global warming, a wide array of specialists must be involved (Shope, 1991). Environmental specialists, such as meteorologists, biologists, and ecologists are required to predict the future climatic outcomes of global warming (Shope, 1991). Once predictions have been made by the environmental specialists, a wide array of health officials can attempt to forecast the res ulting disease patterns. Epidemiologists will be involved in identifying the distribution and determinants of infectious diseases as well as the control and prevention process (Bartfay, 2008). In conjunction with the epidemiologists, public health officials can communicate the predictions and findings of the epidemiologists, various health researchers, and environmental specialists to the public and other national and internal authorities (Bartfay, 2008). This process has currently been utilized in Canada in response to the emergence of West Nile virus (Landrigan Garg, 2002). Subsequent to the predictions of various environmental specialists and health officials regarding the changes in climatic conditions and infectious disease patterns, clinicians and hospital officials can prepare treatments and vaccines to counteract the shift in infectious diseases. Since most of the infectious diseases that have the potential for reemergence in North America have been previous eradicated from the continent, current vaccines are nonexistent (Longstreth Wiseman, 1989). Due to the lack of vaccines and subsequent immunity, the North American culture is at risk for contracting and transmitting a wide array of infectious diseases such as malaria, cholera, and the plague (Longstreth Wiseman, 1989). Developing and implementing vaccines is a crucial step in protecting the public from a widespread, fatal epidemic (Longstreth Wiseman, 1989). In the occurrence of an infectious disease outbreak, hospital personnel and health officials need to have the proper treatments and pr ocedures available to the public to avoid widespread morbidity and mortality. In short, the North American health care systems can expect to see a shift in disease prevalence. As a result of global warming, infectious diseases have the potential to become more prevalent. To effectively respond, infectious disease treatments and facilities need to be devised and implemented into health care systems across the continent. Furthermore, medical schools need to revise their curriculum to incorporate additional training for infectious disease treatment and prevention. Conclusion Global warming and the resulting climatic conditions is an issue that should have been attended to ‘yesterday’. Since consequences directly affect human health and associated ecosystems, global warming has become a worldwide crisis. Increases in temperature, extreme weather events, and precipitation create ideal breeding and growth habitats for many infectious disease-causing pathogens (Nugent, 2004). Among other diseases, infectious diseases transmitted through water, food, vector, and rodent sources are most at risk for being disrupted and altered (Nugent, 2004). Due to current and predicted global warming trends, northern climates could see a reemergence of a variety of infectious diseases including malaria, yellow fever, and West Nile virus (Nugent, 2004). In response to the shift, North American health care systems need to devise and implement associated vaccines, treatments, and facilities to effectively manage the newly reemerged infectious diseases. Because many infectious diseases have been eradicated from North America, the lack of immunity in the western culture could cause a continental or global epidemic with fatal outcomes (Longstreth Wiseman, 1989). To avoid the spread of infectious diseases, a collaboration of efforts between environmental specialists, health officials, and the public is necessary. Without the combined efforts from the global population, global warming and its subsequent health and climatic effects will eventually destroy mankind. As put in the words of Al Gore, â€Å"we are entering a period of consequences† (Gore, 2005). References Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.) Understanding the Epidemiologic Trianglethrough Infectious Disease. Retrieved March 13, 2008, fromhttp://www.bam.gov/teachers/activities/epi_1_triangle.pdf. Climate Action Network Canada. (n.d.) A Climate Change Primer. Retrieved March 14, 2008,from http://www.climateactionnetwork.ca/e/issues/cc-primer.html. Curriero, F. C., Patz, J. A., Rose, J. B., Lele, S. (August, 2001). The Association BetweenExtreme Precipitation and Waterborne Disease Outbreaks in the United States, 19481994. American Journal of Public Health, 91. Retrieved March 4, 2008, fromhttp://www.ajph.org/cgi/reprint/91/8/1194?maxtoshow=HITS=10hits=10RESULORMAT=fulltext=waterborne+disease+outbreaks+between+1948+and+1994andoreactfulltext=andsearchid=1FIRSTINDEX=0sortspec=relevanceresourcetype=HCIT. Environment Canada. (May, 2005). Temperature and Precipitation: Indicators of ClimateChange. Retrieved March 12, 2008, fromhttp://www.ecoinfo.org/env_ind/region/climate/climate_e.cfm. Gore, A. (September 5, 2005). Notable Quotes – Quotes on Global Warming. Retrieved March 7,2008, from http://www.notable-quotes.com/g/global_warming_quotes.html. Khasnis, A. A., Nettleman, M. D. (April, 2005). Global Warming and Infectious Disease.Achieves of Medical Research, 36. Retrieved February 26, 2008, fromhttp://academic.evergreen.edu/cirricular/per/downloads/khasnisnettleman2005.pdf. Landrigan, P., Garg, A. (July 2002). Climate Change and Infectious Disease. The GreenGuide. Retrieved March 6, 2008, fromhttp://www.thegreenguide.com/docprint.mhtml?i=91s=landrigan. Longstreth, J., Wiseman, J. (1989). The potential impact of climate change on patterns ofinfectious disease in the United States. In The potential effects of global climate changeon the United States: Appendix G Health. Retrieved March 3, 2008, fromhttp://www.ciesin.org/docs/001-488/001-488.html. Merrill, R. M., Timmreck, T. C. (2006). Introduction to epidemiology: Fourth edition.Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies. (2002). GISS Surface Temperature Analysis –Global Temperature Trends: 2002 Summation. Retrieved March 15, 2008, fromhttp://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/2002/. Natural Resources Canada. (October, 2007). Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation: ACanadian Perspective – Health Effects of Climate Change and Climate Variability.Retrieved March 15, 2008, from http://www.adaptation.rncan.gc.ca/perspective/health_3_e.php. Natural Resources Canada. (October, 2007). Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation: ACanadian Perspective – Looking to the Future. Retrieved March 15, 2008, fromhttp://adaptation.nrcan.gc.ca/perspective/intro_2_e.php. Nugent, Olivia. (April, 2004). Climate Change and Human Health. In Primer On ClimateChange and Human Health (chapter 2). Retrieved February 27, 2008, fromhttp://www.pollutionprobe.org/Reports/climatechangeprimer.pdf. Public Health Agency of Canada. (November 30, 2007). Current Report Week and Year-to-DateTotal West Nile Virus Cases: 2007. West Nile Virus Monitor. Retrieved March 6, 2008,from http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/wnv-vwn/mon-hmnsurv_e.html. Shope, R. (1991). Global Climate Change and Infectious Diseases. Environmental HealthPerspectives, 96. Retrieved March 2, 2008, from http://www.ciesin.org/docs/001-366/001-366.html. World Health Organization. (2003). Climate Change and Infectious Diseases. In Climate Changeand Human Health – Risks and Responses (chapter 6). Retrieved February 25, 2008, fromhttp://www.euro.who.int/document/gch/climchsum0903e.pdf.

The Development of Video Games Essay -- Technology, Arcade Games

In society’s current era of technological advancement, video games have gone a long way since they were first created. Video games in the twenty-first century are no longer just toys or junk in the lifestyles of the youth. They have become innovative inventions that not only entertain its users, but also help aid the people in both the academic field and in jobs. The influences that video games bring about in the culture of the youth today are, in fact, not the negative influences that most people think. Video games are actually this generation’s new medium for educating the youth. The information they learn are also mostly positive and useful things that they may apply in their future lives (Prensky 4). In a generation that revolves around technology and connectivity, developers and educators have already been able to produce fun and interesting games that can teach and train people. Video game developers and educators should continue to collaborate in order t o create more positive, educational, and appealing games. Society in the 1980s saw games as distraction and a waste of time. Arcade games in 1981 were regarded as a reason for cutting classes. Children and the youth were banned from playing arcade games during school hours and past ten in the evening on weekdays, and past midnight on weekends. Laws against children playing in arcades during the banned hours were implemented in order to prevent further disturbances in their studies (Kent 152). Games to the people in the 1980s were merely forms of entertainment that brought about many video game addicts. However, in the early 1980s video game consoles and personal computers were globally popular. This was because most of the machines that had enough power to... ...design and use of learning games through promoting collaboration among scholars, teachers, developers, producers, and so on.† LGN also hopes to educate the youth through well-designed and developed educational games. They help arrange partnerships with developers, educators, and media specialists, and they try to expand the educational gaming field. Presently, video games aren’t merely toys that negatively influence the youth. They have become an alternative means for people to learn and train for work. Games teach values and essential information, and motivate its players to achieve goals. Soldiers and doctors benefit from video games as well. The collaboration of game developers and educators helps improve the quality of educational games. At present, as technology progresses, one can truly see that video games have become an important factor in learning.